Introduction to Hinduism and Hindu Scriptures
Hinduism is referred to as Sanatana Dharma, the eternal faith. Hinduism is not strictly a religion. It is based on the practice of Dharma, the code of life.
Since Hinduism has no founder, anyone who practices Dharma can call himself a Hindu. He can question the authority of any scripture, or even the existence of the Divine. While religion means to bind, Dharma means to hold. What man holds on to is his inner law, which leads from ignorance to Truth. Though reading of the scriptures (Shastras) would not directly lead you to self-realization, the teachings of the seers provide a basis and a path for spirituality. Despite being the oldest religion, the truth realized by the seers prove that the Truth and path provided by Hinduism is beyond time.
Hindu Scriptures are broadly classified into
- Shruti (meaning 'heard')
- Smriti (meaning 'remembered') and
- Nyaya (meaning 'logic') based on its origin not on the mode of transmission.
Therefore, shruti means something, which was heard (directly from the Gods) by the sages while smriti refers to what was written down and remembered.
Shruti is considered more authoritative than Smriti because the former is believed to have been obtained directly from God by the spiritual experiences of Vedic seers and has no interpretations.
Vedas constitute the shruti while the rest including Itihaasa-s (epics), PuraaNa-s (moral stories), and Agamas (emanated scriptures) are known as smriti.
Vedanta-sutras (Vedanta aphorisms) are classified as Nyaya. Smriti and Nyaya always agree with shruti.
The oldest and foremost among them are the Vedas. The Vedas are called shruti and stems from the inner spiritual experience of the ancient seers. Hindus believe that Vedas are timeless and eternal. There are four Vedas, namely Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Veda. Each Veda consists of sections namely Samhita (containing the hymns) and Brahmana ( significance of the hymns), Aranyakas (interpretations), and Vedanta (Upanishads, which are metaphysical dialogs).
The Vedangas and Upavedas are texts, which augment the Vedas.
There are six Vedangas namely
1) Siksa
2) Jyotisha
3) Kalpa
4) Nirukti
5) Candas, and
6) Vyakarana
Jyotisha (astrology) is the most famous among them. Kalpa explains the rituals and explain a path based on the other five.
There are five Upavedas namely
1) Artha
2) Dhanur
3) Sthapatya
4) Gandharva, and
5) Ayur-veda
Ayurveda, which deals with health, medicine, is probably the most popular of the Upavedas.
Agamas are rules for the ritual, rites and the worship of Gods. There are five of them based for the worship of Ganesha, Shakti, Surya, Shiva, and Vishnu.
One can argue that the Vedas show three clear paths. Karma-kanda is the path using the Vedangas, Upasana-kanda is the path using Aagamas while Jnana-kanda involves the path of Upanishads to realize the Brahman.
Upanishads means 'to sit down near' because they were explained to the students sitting near the feet of their teacher. Upanishads are called Vedanta, because they expound on the spiritual essence of Vedas and they are found at the end of the Vedas. However, one should note that Upanishads are texts, while Vedanta is a philosophy.
While there are numerous Upanishads (1180 to be exact), 108 of them are considered genuine. Eleven of them namely
1) Isha
2) Kena
3) Katha
4) Prashna
5) Mundaka
6) Mandukya
7) Taittilya
8) Aitareya
9) Chadogya
10) Svetahvatara
11) Rohad-Aranaka
are considered the most significant or "major" Upanishads
Vedanta, the basis of Hinduism, asserts that Brahman, the 'impersonal' God and the universal soul, is the Absolute Truth. Brahman has multiple roles to play: the creator, the maintainer, and the destroyer all in one. (This can be viewed as the origin of the trinity Gods namely Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, respectively). Vedanta states that the individual human soul(jiva-atman) originates and merges with the Brahman.
There are three different philosophies on this concept,
1) Advaita (non-duality) implies that there is an identity of Brahman and Jivaatman while
2) Dvaita (duality) differs from
Advaita and maintains an ultimate diversity between Brahman and Jiva-atman
3) Visistadvaita (qualified non-duality) maintains a crucial differentiation as well as a fundamental identity.
Other systems, which aren't quite popular as the above ones are
- Dvaitadvaita (dual-non-dual doctrine) expounded by Nimbarka
- Suddhadvaita (pure non-dualism), and expounded by Vallabha
- Acinntyaa bhedabheda (oneness and difference) expounded by Vidyabhusana
There are six systems of Indian philosophy . They are
1) Jaimini's Purva Mimansa
2) Patanjali's Yoga
3) Gautama's Nyaya
4) Kanada's Vaisheshika
5) Vyasa's Uttar Mimansa, and
6) Kapila's Sankhya.
All the six systems are written in aphorisms (sutras). Though each sutra is just a few lines, huge commentaries have been written on each of them.
Besides all the philosophy, which expound on the cosmic attributes of the Divine, there are epics (Itihaasa-s) and stories (Purans) written which bring into light the human attributes of the Divine.
Itihaasa-s comprises of the two epics: Ramayana and Mahabharata, which are the stories of two incarnations of Lord Vishnu, Rama and Krishna, respectively. These are by far the well read and most popular among the Hindus. Valmiki first wrote Ramayana while Sage Vyasa wrote Mahabharata. The Bhagavad-Gita is the epitome of Hindu philosophy and is found in the Mahabharata. Due to its content, Bhagavad-Gita is sometimes considered to be a Gito-Upanishhad. Vyasa also wrote the eighteen Purans and eighteen sub-Puranas. All Puranas emphasize on morals and is usually a story about a Hindu deity fighting for upholding these morals. There are also Kaavyas which are based on stories derived from the Itihaasas/Purans. Among them, Raghuvamsa, Meghaduta and Shakuntala are very famous.
There are also Prakarana Granthas which are considered to be primers or an introduction for spiritual studies. Among them are Atma Bodha, and Bhaja Govindam [also known as Moha Mudhgara]. Besides the scriptures, there are stotra-s and bhajans (devotional songs and hymns) Among the numerous stotras, Sahasranamams (1008 names of each deity) are very famous.
Hinduism is a way of life, a Dharma. Contrary to popular perception, it is not a religion: It does not have any one founder, and it does not have a Bible or a Koran to which controversies can be referred for resolution. Consequently, it does not require its adherents to accept any one idea. It is thus cultural, not creedal, with a history contemporaneous with the peoples with which it is associated. Since Hindu scriptures include not just books relating to spirituality but also secular pursuits like science, medicine and engineering, it defies classification as a religion.
The Aryan Invasion Theory has been completely discredited. It cannot be assumed that Hinduism was the pagan faith of invaders belonging to a race called Aryans. Rather it was the common metafaith of people of various races, including Harappans. The sanskrit word Aryan is a word of honourable address, not the racial reference invented by European scholars and put to perverse use by the nazis. Unless otherwise specified, Aryan will be used in this document as a word of honourable address.
Many believe that multiplicity of deities makes Hinduism polytheistic. Such a belief is nothing short of mistaking the wood for the tree. The bewildering diversity of Hindu belief - theistic, atheistic and agnostic - rests on a solid unity. Ekam sat, Vipraah bahudhaa vadanti, says the Rig-Veda: The Truth (God, Brahman, etc) is one, scholars call it by various names. What the multiplicity of deities does indicate is Hinduism's spiritual hospitality as evidenced by two characteristically Hindu doctrines: The Doctrine of Spiritual Competence (Adhikaara) and The Doctrine of The Chosen Deity (Ishhta Devata).
The doctrine of spiritual competence requires that the spiritual practices prescribed to a person should correspond to his (or her) spiritual competence. It is counter-productive to teach abstract philosophical concepts to a person whose heart hungers for faith in a higher power and vice versa.
The doctrine of the chosen deity gives a person the freedom to choose (or invent) a form of Brahman that satisfies his spiritual cravings and to make it the object of his worship. Notice that both doctrines are consistent with Hinduism's assertion that the unchanging reality is present in everything, even the transient.
Evidence that Hinduism must have existed even circa 10000 B.C. is available: The importance attached to the river Saraswati and the numerous references to it in the Rig-Veda (interestingly, Ganga appears only twice) indicates that the Rig-Veda was being composed well before 6500 B.C. The first vernal equinox recorded in the Rig-Veda is that of the star Ashwini, which is now known to have occurred around 10000 to substantiate this claim.
There are five elements, which contribute to the essential unity of Hinduism:
1) Common Ideals
2) Common Scriptures
3) Common Deities
4) Common Beliefs
5) Common Practices
All the sects and offshoots of Hinduism share the same moral ideals:
- Ahimsa (non-violence)
- Satya (truthfulness)
- Brahmacharya (often translated wrongly as sexual continence, it actually means the state of incessant search for the ultimate Truth (Brahman). Note that it is not called God, merely the Truth, whatever it is)
- Maitri (Friendship)
- Dharma (a rather crude translation would be "fulfilling one's duty")
- KaruNa (Compassion)
- Viirya (Fortitude)
- Dama (Self Restraint - mental as well as physical)
- Shaucha (Purity - mental as well as physical)
The higher phase of self-control is detachment. Not only do we have to overcome what is evil in life, we must also become independent of what is good. For instance, our love of home and friends is good in itself, but unless we expand it to include everything in the universe, it will be a shackle, what if it is golden. Detachment does not imply disinterest in the changing world: it merely shifts a person's frame of reference to the Reality that endures forever, making his perception more objective, making him better equipped for life.
Truth as a cardinal virtue in Hinduism is far more than mere truthfulness; it means eternal reality. Hinduism says that the pursuit of Truth, wherever it may lead or whatever sacrifices it may involve, is indispensable to the progress of man. Hence no Hindu scripture has ever opposed scientific progress or metaphysical and ethical speculations.
The most important common scriptures are the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, the Epics (Itihaasas : Ramayana and Mahabharata). The Vedas are called SHRUTI, literally that which is heard. Allowing for poetic license, it can be interpreted as that which is discovered. SMRITI, on the other hand, is what is remembered, effectively that which was told. SHRUTI is unalterable because it is a record of observations and experiences. Smriti, on the other hand, is entirely "artificial", and hence warrants modification with changing times and increasing finesse of knowledge.
Since theory should fit observation, and not vice versa, smriti is of secondary authority. If smriti contradicts shruti, it is shruti that prevails. All matters relating to the Hindu Legal Code fall under the category of smritis. Any Hindu Law is thus designed for change. Those that believe the Vedas to be the supreme authority for Hinduism are called aastikas, and those that do not are naastikas. (Popular misnotion is that aastikas are believers (in God) and naastikas are atheists).
Smritis are meant to be elaborations of Vedic revelations. They include the Epics, the codes of law, the sacred romances (Puranas), philosophical treatises (Darshanas), and the sectarian scriptures (aagamas). The Bhagavad-Gita is said to be the essence of the Upanishads for the layman, and is revered by all sects. The epics Ramayana and Mahabharata and the Bhagavata Purana are, as it were, part of the mother's milk which every Hindu child draws (at least that used to be the case!) in his infancy. Countless generations have been moulded by the ideals set for them in these epics.
Directly or otherwise, the Upanishads constitute the philosophical framework for Hinduism. Every religious movement that arose within Hinduism has had to show itself to be in accordance with the Upanishads. Thus it is that with the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Bhagavad-Gita and other sacred writings deriving their authority from the Vedas, the scriptures of Hinduism are a strong force making for unity within all diversity of beliefs and practices.
The common deities are derived form the common scriptures. The idea that every deity whom men worship is the embodiment of a limited ideal, and that the deity is a symbol of some aspects of the Absolute is one of the most fundamental characteristics of Hinduism. It is this idea that makes Hinduism the most tolerant of religions and averse to proselytization through religious propaganda.
The three important functions of the Supreme - Creation, Protection and Destruction - came to be established in popular imagination as the Hindu Trinity - Brahma (NOT Brahman of the Upanishads), Vishnu and Shiva. The power associated with these gods came to be personified as their respective consorts. So Creator Brahma's consort is Saraswati (the goddess of Speech and Learning), Protector Vishnu's consort is Lakshmi (the goddess of wealth and prosperity), and Shiva's consort is Shakti (the goddess of power). Since Vishnu is the protector, he is the one who can take on an avatara, taking human form whenever the world order is disturbed by a colossal form of evil. The other two of the trinity do not have avatars.
The gods were then provided with their own heavens, attendants, vehicles and even progeny. The more intelligent among the people understood this symbolism, but to the masses, the symbols formed an end in themselves. The symbolism is common to all Hindus, but the exclusive emphasis on a particular god or goddess in this scheme at a later time gave rise to various sects like Vaishhnava (worshipers of Vishnu), Shaiva (worshipers of Shiva) and Shakteya (worshipers of Shakti). Those that do not belong to these three sects nor go by their sectarian scriptures (agamaa), but go by the ancient traditions (smritis) and worship all gods without any exclusive preference came to be known as Smartas.
However, all sects teach that the particular name and form of their deities are limitations, which we in our weakness impose on the all-pervading Brahman. Even the highest theism is regarded only as a sort of glorified anthropomorphism. The worship of a personal god is taught to be only a halfway house in a man's journey to the Ultimate Reality. However, the idea of a personal god is the most important prop for the mind to contemplate upon it. Hinduism achieves unity in diversity by cherishing the many ways in which men have represented and worshipped the various aspects of the Supreme.
The common beliefs underlying all schools of thought in Hinduism are beliefs concerning
- the evolution of the physical world
- the law of karma and rebirth
- the four-fold goal of human life
The Prashnopanishhat expounds the Hindu concept of the evolution of the physical world. Expressed concisely, Energy (Prana) and Matter (Rayi) are at the two ends of the cosmic scale. The Energy is dormant in pure Matter and vice versa. The transformation of Energy into matter occurs in stages: Energy to Reason to Consciousness to Life to Matter. The transformation of Matter into Energy traces this path backwards. The Universe itself is a result of the interaction of Energy and Matter. In fact Prashnopanishhat goes so far as to declare that the difference between Energy and Matter is only perceptional, not real. In other words, Energy and Matter are fundamentally the same
The doctrine of Karma emphasizes that God is not a judge who sits in a remote heaven meting out punishments and rewards, but an indwelling being (the Self) whose will works in us through the moral law here and now. While Karma Yoga is the highest form of application of this law, according to which one must perform his duties with a sense of detachment. Cessation of action is what many have understood this to be. In reality however, it is trying to attain perfection in whatever we do by concentrating on what is to be done rather than the anticipated results.
The four-fold goal of human life is the
1) Purushharthas - Dharma (Righteousness)
2) Artha (Worldly Prosperity)
3) Kama (Enjoyment), and
4) Moksha (Liberation)
In the pursuit of the first three one can be helped by others, but in the pursuit of moksha, one is essentially alone. That is why the wedding vow reads: Dharme cha, Arthe cha, Kame cha, Naticharami: "I shall abide by you in dharma, artha and kama".
The unifying concept underlying these basic beliefs is the law of spiritual progress underlying the creation. But, of course, we see only the intermediate stages of this process. As the Bhagavad-Gita says, "Unmanifest is the origin of beings, manifest in their mid-most stage, and unmanifest again their end". We do not know how the Hiranya Garbha divided itself into subject and object and started the process of creation, and how the sundered spirit will be finally restored to its original wholeness in the Absolute. The beginning and the end of the cosmic process are beyond time, which bridges two eternities.
Thus the law of spiritual progression is given as an unerring standard for us. It decrees the following values as of utmost importance:
- Spiritual Values: truth, beauty, love, and righteousness.
- Intellectual Values: clarity, cogency, subtlety, and skill.
- Biological Values: health, strength, and vitality.
- Material Values: riches, possessions, and pleasures.
This, then, is the key to understanding Hinduism. For example, consider the Hindu view of History. Although it does not attach any importance to chronology, the sages had a correct view of historical progress and decline. Persons and wars were seen to be of less importance when compared with roles (played by the persons) and the lessons (of the war). The greatness of a civilization was judged not by the empires they possessed, nor by the wealth they accumulated, nor by their technological progress, but by the righteousness and justice they cultivated.
The organization of the society was conceived as a corollary of the law of spiritual progress, whereby people were to be ranked not by wealth, numerical strength, or power, but by their spiritual progress and culture. The earliest reference to the Varnashrama Dharma, the caste system, is to be found in the Rig-Veda, wherein they are represented as parts of the body of the Creator. This is a poetic image indicating the organic nature of the society of the time. Caste was not to be determined by heredity: Virtue alone was the yardstick (Vajra Suuchika Upanishad is entirely devoted to discussing the Caste System;
This system degenerated to the oppressive stratification, which plagued India for a long time is a vehement testimony to the failings of human nature. The dream of the sages was to organize the society into a cooperative hierarchy much like the Hindu joint family, where elders had greater freedom and responsibility, and the younger ones had greater shelter and protection. But, over the time, this idealistic agenda gave way to unforeseen circumstances under which individual genius had no scope, heredity assumed undeserved importance, and initiative was killed. What was made for order and progress made for order at the expense of progress. Even in its degenerated form, this theocratic ideal saved the Hindu society from disruption during the centuries when a strong central government was either non-existent or was frequently changing hands.
Whatever purpose it may have served in the past, its present form is perceived by all Indians as abhorrent to human dignity. Independent India can now claim to be on the verge of achieving independence from this malady.
Intimately related to the concept of varna is that of Aashrama, the stages of life. Brahmacharya (being a student), Garhastya (being a Householder), Vanaprastha (being a recluse), and, finally, Sanyasa (being a religious mendicant) are ideally the four stages of a man's life. These stages indicate the path of progress for the ideally ordered life of the individual.
Side by side with these philosophical systems, a large body of devotional literature in the spoken languages of India has been developed. This was due to the advent of great reformers Ramananda, Kabir, Nanak, Mirabai, Vallabhacarya, Caitanya, Tulasidasa, and Tukaram.
Ramananda and his Muslim disciple Kabir emphasized the belief in a supreme deity and recognized no caste distinctions, although they accepted the doctrines of Karma and Samsara. Nanak founded the religion of the Sikhs. He was under the influence of Islam as well as of Hinduism and, like Kabir, he believed in Karma and Samsara, Maya and Moksa. He laid great stress on a personal God and a society of disciples not bound by caste or race restrictions. The militant character of Sikhism was a later development due to Aurangzeb's intolerance and persecution.
The great saints of Maharashtra and Bengal created a wonderful literature of Bhakti based on the worship of Rama or of Krsna. Vallabhacarya, in particular, attacked Sankara's Advaita doctrine. He preached that by God's grace alone can man obtain release. Caitanya, a contemporary of Vallabha, and his followers called Goswamis, were itinerant preachers whose sincerity of religious experience brought about a reformation in Bengal. D.S.Sharma has pointed out the common features in Bhakti cults in his Renaissance of Hinduism:
1) Belief in one supreme God of Love and Grace.
2) Belief in the individuality of every soul, which is nevertheless part of the Divine Soul.
3) Belief in salvation through Bhakti.
4) The exaltation of Bhakti above Jnana and Karma; and, also above, the performance
of rites and ceremonies.
5) Extreme reverence paid to the Guru.
6) The doctrine of the Holy Name.
7) Initiation through a mantra and a sacramental meal.
8) The institution of sectarian orders of Sanyasins.
9) The relaxing of the rules of caste, sometimes even ignoring all caste distinctions.
10) Religious teaching through the vernaculars.
It was out of these Bhakti cults that the Sikh group transformed itself into a military brotherhood. Bhakti cults gave rise to such works as the Ramayana by Tulasidasa, the, Abhanga of Tukaram and the poems of devotees like Ramprasad of Bengal and Tayumanavar of South India and passionate outpouring of Mira Bai. All these helped to popularise the spirit of devotion and resulted in a great religious revival in many parts of India
In the 18th century religion suffered a serious decline mainly because the impact of a completely different civilisation. English education destroyed the isolation of India and brought about an active ferment. Many Indians of the time became either sceptics who leaned towards Christianity, or reactionaries who sought to preserve at any cost the ancient forms and institutions. Fortunately, at this time, enlightened Europeans like Sir William Jones, Sir Charles Wilkins, Colebrooke, Monier-Williams and Max Muller revealed by comment and by translation the treasures of ancient Indian wisdom. Art lovers and art critics, who revealed the secrets of sacred and secular art forms and concepts, later supplemented their work.
As an outcome of these influences and counter-influences, there arose a series of movements, which have been rightly described as a renaissance of Hindu life and thought. Raja Ramamohun Roy was the most outstanding pioneer of these movements. He struck a note of universalism in tune with the spirit of the Upanishads. Born in Bengal in 1772, he studied Persian, Arabic and English. In 1803 he published a book in Persian, with a preface in Arabic, entitled Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin. It carried a protest against idolatry and sought to establish a universal religion based on the idea of the unity of Godhead.
He started a controversy with the Christian missionaries and published a book in which he tried to separate the moral teachings of Jesus from the miracles described in the Gospels. Rammohun Roy, along with David Hare, stressed the necessity of education in India on modern lines, in opposition to those who objected to English education and insisted on a return to the past. He repeatedly declared that he had no intention of breaking away from the ancestral religion, and wished to see it restored to its original purity. In order to carry out his ideas he founded the Brahmo Samaj on the basis of theism. The Trust Deed of the Samaj laid down that "no graven image, statue or sculpture carving, painting, picture, portrait or the likeness of anything shall be admitted within the building".
Debendranath Tagore, the next great leader of the Samaj, formulated the Brahmopadesa, comprising tenets from the Upanishads and Tantras. His successor, Keshub Chandra Sen, sought to incorporate Christian ideals into the Brahmo Samaj movement. He began the compilation of a scripture including passages from the Holy Books of many religions - Hindu, Buddhist, Hebrew, Christian, and Muslim etc. Then he went to England in 1870, he was welcomed by many Christian organizations.
As the result of secessions in the Brahmo Samaj, three institutions arose:
- The Adi Brahmo Samaj;
- The New Dispensation of Keshub Chandra Sen; and
- The Sadharan Brahmo Samaj founded by dissenters from the Keshub Church.
The Sadharan Samaj, led by Shivanath Sastri and Ananda Mohun Bose, gave a rational, monistic interpretation of the Upanishads, admitting the essential unity of the universal self and the individual self.
The following doctrines, as noted in Renaissance of Hinduism are common to all these varieties and offshoots of the Brahmo Samaj:
1) They have no faith in any scripture as an authority.
2) They have no faith in Avatars.
3) They denounce polytheism and idol-worship.
4) They are against caste restrictions.
5) They make faith in the doctrines of Karma and Rebirth optional.
Justice Ranade in Bombay founded another offshoot of the Brahmo Samaj, the Prarthana Samaj. Its programme included disapproval of caste, recognition of widow marriage, and the encouragement of women's education. Dr. Atmaram Pandurang, Pandita Rama Bai, S. P. Kelkar and S. P. Pandit were the principal exponents of this Samaj.
As a reaction against the influences typified by Raja Ramamohun Roy and Justice Ranade, Swami Dayanand Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj. It attacked the Brahmo Samaj for its pro-European and pro-Christian attitude. A great Sanskrit scholar and a believer in the doctrines of Karma and Rebirth, Swami Dayanand sought to revive the Vedic ideals and laid stress on Brahmacarya and Sanyasa. He believed implicitly in the ancient scriptures, disavowing Puranic Hinduism in favour of Vedic Hinduism.
The Puranic texts, he said, had no Vedic sanction. Holding the Vedas alone as authoritative, he stated that God and the human soul are two distinct entities, different in nature and attributes, though they are inseparable from each other as the pervader and the pervaded. The Arya Samaj of course accepts the doctrine of Karma and Samsara. One of its main activities is Suddhi, a purification ceremony, by which non-Hindus are converted to Hinduism. The depressed classes and Harijans are entitled to be invested with the sacred thread and are given equal status with other Hindus. The Arya Samaj also reclaimed many Hindus who had been converted to Islam and Christianity. Sanghatan, organization of the Hindus for self-defence, is one of the main principles of the Arya Samaj, and it has played its part as the church militant in the Hindu fold.
The Theosophical Society, founded in 1875 by Col. Olcott and Madame Blavatsky, co-operated with the Arya Samaj and tried for a time to organize Indian life on national lines and check the activities of Christian missionaries. Col. Olcott and Madame Blavatsky went later to Ceylon, declared themselves Buddhists, and took part in a movement for the revival of Buddhism. Dr. Annie Besant joined the Society after a period of militant agnosticism, side by side with notable social service, and political work amongst the Fabians in England. She became the head of the Theosophical Society in 1891. Claiming that she had been a Hindu in her former birth, Annie Besant worked throughout her life for the regeneration and activization of Hindu thought and Hindu life.
She published a translation of the Bhagavad-Gita along with Dr. Bhagvan Das and popularised Hindu ideals in her numerous publications and marvellously eloquent speeches. A defender of many orthodox ideals, she turned later to social reform, which included the partial modification of the caste system. . One of the main principles of Theosophy is the belief in a brotherhood of great teachers of the past who are supposed to be living still, watching over and guiding the evolution of humanity. The Theosophical Society under Dr. Besant's guidance spread the fundamental principles of the Hindu religion - Karma, Reincarnation, Yoga and spiritual evolution.
Sri Ramakrishna and Vivekananda
Sri Ramakrishna Paramhamsa, a great devotee and mystic, had a broad outlook of universalism. After accepting the discipline of Yoga and Tantric Sadhana, he underwent the discipline of the Vaisnava, the Christian and the Islamic ways of life. To rouse the religious feelings of the wordly-minded and re-affirm the ancient truths of Hinduism by an appeal to experience, he trained a devoted band of followers, the most outstanding of whom was Narendranath, Swami Vivekananda. Sri Ramakrishna's teachings were neither new nor heterodox. As Swami Vivekananda said on one occasion, Ramakrishna brought old truths to light.
He was an embodiment of the past religious thought of India. Like other great religious teachers of the world, he projected his ideas through parables or images. Questioned, for instance, on the problem of evil, Sri Ramakrishna said: "Evil exists in God as poison in a serpent. What is poison to us is not poison to the serpent. Evil is evil only from the point of view of man". In other words, from the absolute standpoint, there is no evil, but from the relative standpoint evil is a terrible reality. Ramakrishna preached that realization is the essence of religion - and that all religions are paths leading to the same goal.
He deprecated metaphysical subtleties and insisted on deep devotion - it was, he said, through his intense devotion to the image of the Divine Mother in Dakshineswar that realization had come to him. Swami Vivekananda said: "If men like Sankara, Caitanya and Ramakrishna found image worship helpful, there is no sense in declining it".
Ramakrishna's religion and the movement he founded by gathering around him a band of devoted workers were essentially practical. This aspect was expounded and universalised by Swami Vivekananda. Under the inspiration of Ramakrishna, he changed from scepticism to religious realization and travelled all over the world, preaching the essence of the truths of Hinduism. He dedicated himself to the service of India and particularly to the service of those who were starving, depressed, or beyond the social pale. The work for the uplift of the Indian masses was for him as important as meditation or Yoga.
At the Parliament of Religions in Chicago, Swami Vivekananda struck a note of universal toleration based on the Hindu belief that all religions lead to the same God. He also declared in Chicago that the religion of the Hindus is centred on self-realization; idols, temples, churches and books are aids and nothing more. Swami Vivekananda strengthened the Ramakrishna organization by founding monasteries and centres of Hindu teaching in India and abroad. He reinterpreted Hinduism and stated that the abstract Advaita must become living.
All through his life and especially during his travels abroad, he insisted that the essential features of Hinduism are its universality, its impersonality, its rationality, catholicity and optimism. Above all, its authority is not affected by the historicity of any particular man. Swami Vivekananda told his countrymen that they had become weak and miserable because they did not bring their Vedanta out of the books into life itself. His great contribution to Hinduism lay in applying the Hindu creed to the elevation of the masses and abolishing India's isolation from the world, culturally, spiritually, and in many aspects of social life. He founded a great and worldwide organization, the Ramakrishna Mission, which has worked for the spiritual welfare and multiform amelioration of the living conditions of the people of India and other countries.
Sri Aurobindo Ghosh, one of the latest exponents and interpreters of Hinduism, has described ancient Indian philosophy as follows: "an ingrained and dominant spirituality, an inexhaustible vital creativeness and gusto of life, and, mediating between them, a powerful, penetrating and scrupulous intelligence, combined with the rational ethical and aesthetic mind at a high intensity of action, created the harmony of the ancient Indian culture". Sri Aurobindo gave new interpretations of the Vedas and the Vedanta, and in his Essay on the Gita he expounded what he called "the integral view of life". His great work, The Life Divine, is a summing up of his philosophy of "the Descent of the Divine into Matter". The importance of Sri Aurobindo's mission lies not only in his restatements of old ideals but also in his attempt to explain the true methods of Yoga as apart from mere asceticism and illusionism.